Blood Lead Levels and Likely Adverse Health Outcomes in Under Five Children in Kabwe, Zambia
Keywords:
Lead, Exposure, Contamination, Risk, Chelation, Lead levels.Abstract
Abstract
The aim of this study is to determine blood lead levels which can lead to adverse health outcomes in under five children in Kabwe (Makululu Township). This study was a cross-sectional study based on secondary data collected in 2015 by Misenge environmental and technical services (METS) ltd, a subsidiary of ZCCM- Investments Holdings Plc. The study was conducted in four zones (Zambezi, Moomba, Makululu, Chililalila) with proximity to the closed Kabwe mine. The study population was children under five, in Makululu Township and study sample was conveniently selected from the study population. All under five children brought to Kabwe mine clinic from Makululu Township were measured for their blood lead levels, until a sample size of 1,166 was reached
Blood samples were taken and analyzed in the laboratory for lead concentrations by a professional staff; under the supervision of a medical officer at Kabwe Mine Clinic where lead-Care blood testing system was used. A small, capillary sample of blood (50
References
Blacksmith Institute. The Silent Death: Lead Poisoning in Kabwe, Zambia, 2001.
B. Leteinturier, J. Laroche, J. Matera and F. Malaisse Reclamation of lead/zinc processing wastes at Kabwe, Zambia: a phytogeochemical approach. South Africa Journal of Science 97 624-627), 2001.
World Bank Implementation completion Report (ICR) Review- Zambia Copperbelt Environmental Project (CEP), 2012.
Blacksmith Institute. Environmental Assessment Project
Y. Mathee, Von Schirnding, M. Montgomery and H. R
Y. Mathee, Von Schirnding, J. Levin and I. Naik. Reductions in blood lead levels among school children following the introduction of unleaded petrol in South Africa. Environmental Research 100(3):319-322, 2006.
J. Nriagu, C. J. Champak., R. Naidoo and A. Coutsoudis Lead poisoning in children in Africa, II.
Kwazulu/Natal, South Africa. Sci Total Environ; 197: 1-11, 1997.
S. H. D'souza, G. Menezes. Toxicology and Industrial Health, Vol. 22; 249-254, 2006.
ATSDR. Lead Toxicity, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Department of Health and Human Services, 2005.
CDC
R. Norman, A. Mathee, B. Barnes and L. van der Merwe, D. Bradshaw and the South African Comparative. Estimating the burden of disease attributable to lead exposure in South Africa in 2000
G. W. Goldstein. Neurological concepts of lead poisoning in children. Pediatric Annals, 21 (6): 384
M. Smith, T. Delves, R. Lansdown , B. Clayton and P. Graham. The effects of lead exposure on urban children: the Institute of Child Health/Southampton Study. Dev Med Child Neurol Suppl. ; 47:1-54, 1983.
H. L. Needleman and D. Bellinger. Studies of lead exposure and the developing central nervous system: a reply to Kaufman. Arch Clin Neuropsychol ;16:359
T. I. Lidsky and J. S. Schneider. Lead neurotoxicity in children: basic mechanisms and clinical correlates. Brain; 126:5
D. C. Bellinger and H. L. Needleman. Intellectual impairment and blood lead levels [Letter] N Engl J Med; 249(5):500
P. A. Baghurst, A. J. McMchael, N. R. Wigg and G. V. Vimpani. Lead exposure and intelligence in 7 year-old children, 1997.
D. C. Bellinger. Supplement article: Lead. Paediatrics Vol. 113 No. 4 pp;, 1016-1022, 2004.
S. Tong, E. Yasmin, Von Schirnding, and T. Prapamontol. Environmental lead exposure: a public health problem of global dimensions, 2000.
L .D. MaGrant and A. I. Sors. Lead exposure and child development: An international assessment. Lancaster, England, MTP Press:119
United States Environmental Protection Agency National Lead Information Centre Hotline, 2010: www.epa.gov/lead/pubs/nlic.htm
D. C. Bellinger. Effect modification in epidemiologic studies of low-level neurotoxicant exposures and health outcomes. Neurotoxicol Teratol; 22:133
K. Karin, B. Terry. Recent Developments in Low-Level Lead Exposure and Intellectual Impairment in Children. Environ Health Perspect. v.112 (9), 2004.
J. S. Schneider, M. H. Lee, D. W. Anderson, L. Zuck and T. I. Lidsky. Enriched environment during development is protective against lead-induced neurotoxicity. Brain Res. ;896:48
S. Tong and A. Y. Lu. Identification of confounders in the assessment of the relationship between exposure and child development. Ann Epidemiol; 11:38
G. A. Wasserman, and P. Litvak. Methodology, inference and causation: environmental lead exposure and childhood intelligence. Arch Clin Neuropsychol ; 16:343
G. Winneke and U. Kr
WHO. Inorganic Lead. International Programme on Chemical Safety, Environmental Health Criteria. WHO Geneva, 165, 1995. blood lead levels in a lead mining area in South Africa. Environmental Research; 93: 259- 263,2003. Available: http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc165.htm [accessed 30 March 2004].
CDC. The National Report on Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals. Lead Poisoning, 2005.
Y. Schirnding, A. Mathee, M. Kibel, P. Robertson, N. Strauss, and R. Blignaut. A study of paediatric
H. L. Needleman, C. Gunnoe, A. Leviton. Deficits in psychologic and classroom performance of children with elevated dentine lead levels. N Engl J Med; 300: 689-95, 1979.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Authors who submit papers with this journal agree to the following terms.
