Discrimination, Racism, Social Inequality, and Injustice Experienced Among Native Hawaiians through the Lens of Historical Trauma
Keywords:
Native Hawaiian, Native American, Historical Traua, Colonization, Discrimination, alcoholAbstract
The purpose of this study was to explore the lived experiences of colonization and historical trauma and links to alcohol among Native Hawaiians living in rural Hawaii. Native American groups including, American Indians, and Alaska Natives have experienced historically traumatic events over the past 500 years, after contact with Europeans. Some Indigenous scholars have posited that historical trauma is a primary cause of the current social pathology and health disparities in Native Hawaiians. A phenomenological design was selected for this study using Indigenous storytelling methodology. Two themes emerged including: a) the participants described experiences of negative stereotyping that leads to perceived discrimination and racism which is a trigger for increased thoughts of historical losses including the loss of identity: b) the participants described experiences of social inequality and injustices which has increased the use of alcohol and methamphetamine as a way to cope by self-medicating There remains the need for investigators to examine whether the type of experiences of discrimination, racism, social inequality, and injustice differ for people of various racial-ethnic backgrounds, especially Indigenous people. It is necessary for researchers to examine the impact of these experiences to clarify the prevalence and effects on health and health behaviors.
References
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M.Y.H. Brave Heart. “Oyate Ptayela: Rebuilding the Lakota Nation through addressing historical trauma among Lakota parents.” Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, vol 2(1-2), pp. 109-126, 1999.
M.Y.H. Brave Heart. “The historical trauma response among Natives and its relationship with substance abuse: A Lakota illustration.” Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, vol. 35(11), pp. 7–13, 2003.
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L. J. Kirmayer, J. P. Gone, and J. Moses, “Rethinking Historical Trauma,” Transcultural Psychiatry, vol. 51, no. 3. pp. 299–319, 2014. doi: 10.1177/1363461514536358.
C. Moustakas. Phenomenological Research Methods. Sage Publications, 1994.
L. L. Myhra, “American Indian and Alaska Native Mental Health Research.” [Online]. Available: www.ucdenver.edu/caianh
J. E. Helms, “An examination of the evidence in culturally adapted evidence-based or empirically supported interventions,” Transcultural Psychiatry, vol. 52, no. 2, pp. 174–197, 2015, doi: 10.1177/1363461514563642.
N. Priest, Y. Paradies, B. Trenerry, M. Truong, S. Karlsen, and Y. Kelly, “A systematic review of studies examining the relationship between reported racism and health and wellbeing for children and young people,” Social Science and Medicine, vol. 95, pp. 115–127, Oct. 2013, doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.11.031.
M.T. Williams, J.W. Kanter, & T. H. Ching. “Anxiety, stress and trauma symptoms in African Americans: Negative affectivity does not explain the relationship between microaggressions and psychopathology,” Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, vol 5, pp. 919-927, 2018.
M. T. Williams, D. Printz & R.C. DeLapp. Assessing racial trauma with trauma Symptoms of Discrimination Scale. Psychology of Violence, vol 8, no. 6, pp. 735, 2018.
} Heard-Garris, D.R. Nia, & M. Davis. “Structuring research to address discrimination as a factor in child and adolescent health.” JAMA Pediatrics, vol 172, no 10. pp. 910-912, 2018.
The National Congress of American Indians (NCAI). “Tribal Nations & the United States: An Introduction. https://www.ncai.org/tribalnations/introduction/Indian_Country_101_Updated_February_2019.pdf
P. Pokhrel and T. A. Herzog. “Historical trauma and substance use among Native Hawaiian college students.” American Journal of Health Behavior, vol. 38, (3), pp. 420–429, doi: 10.5993/AJHB.38.3.11
M. Brown. “Aina 1 under the influence: The criminalization of alcohol in 19th-century Hawai’i.” Theoretical Criminology, vol 7(1), pp. 89, 2003.
C. Greywolf. “Exploring a shared history of colonization, historical trauma and links to alcohol use with Native Hawaiians living in rural Hawaii in the 21st century.” Dissertation, University of Hawaii, Manoa, 2020.
D. Stannard. “American holocaust: The conquest of the new world.” Oxford University Press, 1993.
Brave Heart & DeBruyn. “The American Indian holocaust: Healing historical and unresolved grief.” American Indian and Alaska Native mental Health research, vol.8 (2), pp. 56-78, 1998.
M.Y.H. Brave Heart. “The return to the sacred path: Healing the historical trauma and historical unresolved grief response among the Lakota through a psychoeducational group intervention. Smith College in Social Work, vol 68(3), pp. 387-305, 1998.
M.Y.H. Brave Heart. “Oyate Ptayela: Rebuilding the Lakota Nation through addressing historical trauma among Lakota parents.” Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, vol 2(1-2), pp. 109-126, 1999.
M.Y.H. Brave Heart. “The historical trauma response among Natives and its relationship with substance abuse: A Lakota illustration.” Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, vol. 35(11), pp. 7–13, 2003.
B. K. Charbonneau-Dahlen, J. Lowe, S. L. Morris. “Giving voice to historical trauma through storytelling: The impact of boarding school experience on American Indians.” Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma, vol. 25 (6) pp. 598–617, doi: 10.1080/10926771.2016.1157843, July 2016.
A. R. Denham. “Rethinking historical trauma: Narratives of resilience.” Transcultural Psychiatry, vol. 45(3), pp. 391–414, doi: 10.1177/1363461508094673, 2008.
R. Foxworth and C. Boulding “Discrimination and resentment: examining American attitudes about Native Americans,” Journal of Race Ethnicity and Politics, vol. 7(1), pp. 9–36, March 2022, doi: 10.1017/rep.2021.23.
W. J. Szlemko, J. W. Wood, and P. J. Thurman. “Native Americans and alcohol: Past, present, and Future,” The Journal of General Psychology, vol 133(4), pp. 435-451, 2006.
J. Jaramillo, Z. R. Mello, and F. C. Worrell. “Ethnic identity, stereotype threat, and perceived discrimination among Native American adolescents.” Journal of Research on Adolescence, vol. 26(4), pp. 769–775, Dec. 2016, doi: 10.1111/jora.12228.
M. Y. H. Brave Heart, J. Chase, J. Elkins, and D. B. Altschul, “Historical trauma among Indigenous peoples of the Americas: Concepts, research, and clinical considerations,” Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, vol. 43 no. 4, pp. 282–290, Oct. 2011. doi: 10.1080/02791072.2011.628913.
D. Dickerson et al., “Encompassing Cultural Contexts Within Scientific Research Methodologies in the Development of Health Promotion Interventions,” Prevention Science, vol. 21, pp. 33–42, Jan. 2020, doi: 10.1007/s11121-018-0926-1.
J. K. Kaholokula, A. Grandinetti, S. Keller, A. H. Nacapoy, T. K. Kingi, and M. K. Mau, “Association between perceived racism and physiological stress indices in Native Hawaiians,” Journal of Behavioral Medicine vol. 35, no. 1, pp. 27–37, Jan. 2012, doi: 10.1007/s10865-011-9330-z.
L. B. Whitbeck, X. Chen, D. R. Hoyt, and G. W. Adams, “Discrimination, Historical Loss and Enculturation: Culturally Specific Risk and Resiliency Factors for Alcohol Abuse among American Indians,” Journal of Studies on Alcohol, vol 65, no. 4, pp.409-418, 2004.
T. Evans-Campbell, K. L. Walters, C. R. Pearson, and C. D. Campbell, “Indian boarding school experience, substance use, and mental health among urban two-spirit American Indian/Alaska natives,” American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, vol. 38, no. 5, pp. 421–427, Sep. 2012, doi: 10.3109/00952990.2012.701358.
J. P. Gone and J. E. Trimble, “American Indian and Alaska Native mental health: Diverse perspectives on enduring disparities,” Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, vol. 8. pp. 131–160, Apr. 27, 2012. doi: 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032511-143127.
K. L. Braun, B. J. Kim, L. S. Ka’opua, N. Mokuau, and C. V. Browne, “Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander elders: What gerontologists should know,” Gerontologist, vol. 55, no. 6. Gerontological Society of America, pp. 912–919, Dec. 01, 2015. doi: 10.1093/geront/gnu072.
M. M. Sotero, “HD RP A Conceptual Model of Historical Trauma: Implications for Public Health Practice and Research,” 2006. [Online]. Available: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1350062Electroniccopyavailableat:http://ssrn.com/abstract=1350062
L. J. Kirmayer, J. P. Gone, and J. Moses, “Rethinking Historical Trauma,” Transcultural Psychiatry, vol. 51, no. 3. pp. 299–319, 2014. doi: 10.1177/1363461514536358.
C. Moustakas. Phenomenological Research Methods. Sage Publications, 1994.
L. L. Myhra, “American Indian and Alaska Native Mental Health Research.” [Online]. Available: www.ucdenver.edu/caianh
J. E. Helms, “An examination of the evidence in culturally adapted evidence-based or empirically supported interventions,” Transcultural Psychiatry, vol. 52, no. 2, pp. 174–197, 2015, doi: 10.1177/1363461514563642.
N. Priest, Y. Paradies, B. Trenerry, M. Truong, S. Karlsen, and Y. Kelly, “A systematic review of studies examining the relationship between reported racism and health and wellbeing for children and young people,” Social Science and Medicine, vol. 95, pp. 115–127, Oct. 2013, doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.11.031.
M.T. Williams, J.W. Kanter, & T. H. Ching. “Anxiety, stress and trauma symptoms in African Americans: Negative affectivity does not explain the relationship between microaggressions and psychopathology,” Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, vol 5, pp. 919-927, 2018.
M. T. Williams, D. Printz & R.C. DeLapp. Assessing racial trauma with trauma Symptoms of Discrimination Scale. Psychology of Violence, vol 8, no. 6, pp. 735, 2018.
} Heard-Garris, D.R. Nia, & M. Davis. “Structuring research to address discrimination as a factor in child and adolescent health.” JAMA Pediatrics, vol 172, no 10. pp. 910-912, 2018.
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